There are many depictions of gagaku in works of Japanese classical literature from the 10th century onwards. Characters in these works are often active performers of music and dance rather than simply passive observers. It is clear from these works that gagaku played an important part in daily life at court.

Gagaku in Genji monogatari (‘The Tale of Genji’)

Music, dance, and music instruments are depicted frequently in Genji monogatari (‘The Tale of Genji’), which was written in the mid-Heian period (ca. 1000), when gagaku was at its zenith.*

One particularly striking passage is in Chapter 7, ‘Momiji no Ga’ (‘Beneath the Autumn Leaves’), where Hikaru Genji (at the time a Captain) dances Seigaiha (‘Blue Sea Waves’) with Tō no Chūjō (his rival, the Secretary Captain) in front of the emperor and his court. His entry from among the falling autumn leaves “shone forth with an awesome beauty,” and the brilliance of his face was highlighted as the autumn leaves of his headdress, falling as he danced, were replaced with newly picked chrysanthemums.

Another impressive scene is the performance of azuma-asobi at Sumiyoshi shrine in Chapter 34, ‘Wakana Ge’ (‘Spring Shoots II’). Here the music of azuma-asobi is described as “familiar,” and “so much more appealing than the solemn pieces from Koma [Korea] or Cathay [China].” It appears that the author, Murasaki Shikibu, preferred these dances with their simpler, more familiar melodies based on folksongs of the eastern provinces.
(* For translations in this section, reference has been made to Royall Tyler’s 2001 translation.)

Gagaku and classical literature of the medieval period

Heike monogatari (‘The Tale of the Heike’) is a military tale depicting the rise and fall of the Heike clan during the 12th century. Originally a work of oral literature, it took form during the 13th century. There are many scenes in which gagaku appears, including the following famous episode entitled ‘Senju-no-Mae’ from Chapter 10.

After Taira no Shigehira (of the Heike) is captured at the battle of Ichi-no-tani, he is transported to Kamakura, where he is interrogated by the leader of the enemy, Minamoto no Yoritomo. That evening, he is entertained by Senju-no-Mae, a lady-in-waiting of considerable musical talents. She sings two rōei songs, and continues with an imayō: “All those who wish for Paradise should intone the sacred name of Amida.” She then plays the zither sō, playing the piece Goshōraku (‘The Five Virtues’). Shigehira interprets the name in a different way, saying that for him it means ‘A Happy Rebirth (in the Pure Land).’ He then takes the lute biwa, tunes it, and plays the kyū (‘quick’) movement of Ōjō. (Although the name of Ōjō derives from a Chinese place name, it too is a homophone of a word meaning ‘Rebirth,’ thus implying that he wants to hurry to the Pure Land.*) Shigehira, aware that he is fated to be executed, is very impressed by Senju-no-Mae’s musical talents and sensibility.

The 15th-century Noh playwright Konparu Zenchiku recast this scene as a Noh play, Senju. There are several other Noh plays that use gagaku as thematic material in some way, such as Umegae (‘Branch of the Plum’), Hagoromo (‘The Feather Mantle’) and Genjō (‘The Lute Genjō’).

* Shigehira’s wordplays show his knowledge of a now extinct genre of gagaku songs called gokuraku shōga (‘paradise songs’), which set texts about the Pure Land to the melodies of tōgaku pieces. Both Goshōraku and Ōjō were given texts of this nature.